0000001584 00000 n
Within evolutionary biology a distinction is frequently made between proximate and ultimate causes. Canfield, J.: 1964, ‘Teleological Explanations in Biology’,British Journal for the Philosophy of Science Rather, explanations referring to ultimate causes typically emerge from functional analyses. The first is a distinction between immediate and historical causes. Root, M.: 1989, ‘Covering-Laws and Functions’,Biology and Philosophy ),Beyond Neo-Darwinism, Academic Press, London. ((h��LNTL�`a����^�����o�]Eeπ�ς/�տ��/� +���K�^��iŪ��7���c��CG���ӳ�%l�X����#7n��ܸuc�Ʒ6��a#�qx+2l���F��q8}c88l�a+8_����|a8_�����a��&߄�o�Ǜ��f�o3η���p�����AAj�hqP�PJ An example of proximate cause being confirmed in a factual causation case can be found in Palsgraf v. Long Island Railroad. Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, 97403, Eugene, OR, USA, You can also search for this author in Behavior is the change in activity of an organism in response to a stimulus. Ultimate cause refers to “why” questions related to animal behavior. An example of a positive chemotaxis is exhibited by the … So-called “ultimate explanations” are not about causes in any sense resembling those of proximate explanations. PubMed Google Scholar, Francis, R.C. Peeke, H. V. S., Herz, M. J. and Gallagher, J.: 1971, ‘Changes in Aggressive Interactions in Adjacently Territorial Convict Cichlids (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum): A Study of Habituation’,Behaviour 0000002986 00000 n
A good way to understand how proximate cause works is to describe a proximate cause example. 14, 289–302. Cause and Effect in Biology. 4, 159–62. Biology and Philosophy 9: 359-371. Goodwin, B. C.: 1984, ‘Changing from an Evolutionary to a Generative Paradigm in Biology’, in J. W. Pollard (ed. This exists in contrast to a higher-level ultimate cause (or distal cause) which is usually thought of as the "real" reason something occurred. 134, 1501–1506. The proximate cause of the wing color in the peppered moth is genetic. Sober, E.: 1984,The Nature of Selection, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 0000085143 00000 n
Cause-in-fact is determined by the "but for" test: But for the action, the result would not have happened. Webster, G. and Goodwin, B. C.: 1984, ‘A Structuralist Approach to Morphology’,Rivista di Biologia 0000024743 00000 n
0000082838 00000 n
),Evolutionary Theory: Paths into the Future, John Wiley and Sons. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02207379, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Beckner, M.: 1969, ‘Function and Teleology’,Journal of the History of Biology 0000027004 00000 n
Proximate and ultimate causation A proximate cause is an event which is closest to, or immediately responsible for causing, some observed result.This exists in contrast to a … The noun "approximation" and both the noun and verb "approximate" derive from "proximare" (via the Late Latin verb approximare). …arises in animals) from its ultimate cause (that is, the evolutionary history and functional utility of the behaviour). Charnov, E. L.: 1982,The Theory of Sex Allocation, Princeton University Press, Princeton. This video introduces students to proximate and ultimate explanations of biological systems by taking them through the example of the lac operon. 0000084813 00000 n
Part of Springer Nature. 0000065334 00000 n
1, 355–65. 0000078032 00000 n
The idea that behaviors evolved as a result of the pressures of natural selection is not new. Williams, G. C.: 1966,Adaptation and Natural Selection, Princeton University Press, Princeton. Google Scholar Mayr E. 1961. Science 131: 1501-1506. 0000003881 00000 n
Endler, J. 0000085265 00000 n
85, 70–86. Beckner, M.: 1959,The Biological Way of Thought, Columbia University Press, New York. Within evolutionary biology a distinction is frequently made between proximate and ultimate causes. Proximate causes include hereditary, developmental, structural, cognitive, psychological, and physiological aspects of behaviour. ),Paradigms and Paradoxes, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh. This is known as the proximate cause. Baker, J. R.: 1938, ‘The Evolution of Breeding Seasons’, in G. R. de Beer (ed. “Ultimate causes” are neither ultimate nor causes. Immediate online access to all issues from 2019. In 1927, the Plaintiff, Mrs. Palsgraf, was standing at the end of a long train platform waiting for … Goodwin, B. C.: 1983, ‘A Relational or Field Theory of Reproduction and Its Evolutionary Consequences’, in M.-W. Ho and P. T. Saunders (eds. Achinstein, P.: 1983,The Nature of Explanation, Oxford University Press, New York. This theory’s goal is to enable predictions of behavior from knowledge of population parameters and Biology and Philosophy 8: 95-98. • Ultimate causation explains traits in terms of evolutionary forces acting on them. 85, 70–86. 2. This chapter argues that as applied to any crimes or torts, not just those of negligence, the harm within the risk test does not address the issues that tests of proximate causation do and should address. ),The Structure of Scientific Theories, University of Illinois Press, Urbana. Example:Why did the ship sink? But “ultimate causes” are not sought through historical investigations of an organisms lineage. Hempel, C. G.: 1959, ‘The Logic of Functional Analyses’, in L. Gross (ed. Learn more about Institutional subscriptions. New York. A.: 1986,Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton University Press, Princeton. Behavioral biology is the study of the biological and evolutionary bases for such changes. 0000020342 00000 n
‘Functions’,Philosophical Quarterly 122 0 obj
<>stream
The first section gives a brief historical survey of the contributions made by biologists to the understanding of causality. 4 131–158. What is causation in biology? Parting between proximate and ultimate causation is questioned. 0000027236 00000 n
4, 185–190. 0000004333 00000 n
evolutionary developmental biology, and relate it to different forms of causation. Horan, B. L.: 1989, ‘Functional Explanations in Sociobiology’,Biology and Philosophy 0000021661 00000 n
Google Scholar Mayr E. 1994. ),Beyond Neo-Darwinism, Academic Press, London. This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access. 0000001746 00000 n
0000077150 00000 n
Alexander, R. D.: 1987,The Biology of Moral Systems, Aldine De Gruyter, New York. In other words, proximate causes are the mechanisms directly underlying the behaviour. Beatty, J.: 1980, ‘Optimal-Design Models and the Strategy of Model Building in Evolutionary Biology’,Philosophy of Science The second section looks at the role of causal concepts in the theory of evolution. 0000001176 00000 n
In 1961, Ernst Mayr published a highly influential article on the nature of causation in biology, in which he distinguished between proximate and ultimate causes. In 1961, Ernst Mayr published a highly influential article on the nature of causation in biology, in which he distinguished between proximate and ultimate causes. Wake, D. B. and Larson, A.: 1987, ‘Multidimensional Analysis of an Evolving Lineage”,Science <<021F1DF9756F6C44B16B2CF8A567BDDC>]/Prev 134920>>
- 108.169.181.185. Lehman, H.: 1965. natural selection) addressed distinct ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions and were not competing alternatives. %%EOF
In law, a proximate cause is an event sufficiently related to an injury that the courts deem the event to be the cause of that injury. 72, 741–764. © 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. hygtSW���꒢���V� 0000040292 00000 n
0000005604 00000 n
Nagel, E.: 1961,Structure of Science, Harcourt, Brace and World, New York. Abstract Proximate and ultimate causes in evolutionary biology have come to conflate two distinctions. Boorse, C.: 1976, ‘Wright on Functions’,Philosophical Review %PDF-1.4
%����
0000004435 00000 n
79 0 obj
<>
endobj
0000025377 00000 n
Wright, L.: 1973, ‘Functions’,Philosophical Review 0000085399 00000 n
0000065388 00000 n
There are two types of causation in the law: cause-in-fact, and proximate (or legal) cause. 5, 15–47. The article that I used as my focus is “EvoDevo and Niche Construction: Building Bridges” by Laland, Odling-Smee, and Gilbert. 0000021947 00000 n
One apparently plausible interpretation of this dichotomy is that proximate causes concern processes occurring during the life of an organism while ultimate causes refer to those processes (particularly natural selection) that shaped its genome. 0000024603 00000 n
xref
Response to John Beatty. startxref
Lorenz, K.: 1966,On Aggression, Harcourt Brace Javonovich, New York. Ayala, F. J.: 1970, ‘Teleological Explanations in Evolutionary Biology’,Philosophy of Science Proximate cause is used in civil and criminal cases, and are frequent in personal injury legal cases. In moths that survive and reproduce, the genes for a specific color is passed to their offspring. In the context of the law, there must be … Alexander, R. D.: 1979,Darwinism and Human Affairs, University of Washington Press, Seattle. Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. 0000077970 00000 n
3 He called the study of proximate mechanisms ‘functional biology’, but studying the adaptive functions of traits is central to the evolutionary, not proximate explanations. Proximate causes explain the genetic, developmental, and physiological processes responsible for animal behavior. These issues are three in number: first, issues of remoteness; second, issues of intervening causation; and third, issues of pre-existing abnormalities. Biol Philos 5, 401–415 (1990). 15 135–175. In this article, both niche construction and evolutionary developmental biology are talked about. This exists in contrast to a higher-level ultimate cause which is usually thought of as the "real" reason something occurred. Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge MA 02138. 0000004297 00000 n
1, 133–146. trailer
Proximate causation: Explanation of an animal's behavior based on trigger stimuli and internal mechanisms. 0000002127 00000 n
Biology and Philosophy Ultimate causation: Explanation of an animal's behavior based on evolution - why this specific trait was favored by natural selection. The distinction between proximate and evolutionary explanations is a core principle of evolutionary medicine, 2 but Mayr’s terminology has caused confusion. Something which is either carelessly or intentionally caused and results in someone's injuries or distress. The attitude, implicit in the term “ultimate cause”, that these functional analyses are somehow superordinate to those involving “proximate causes” is unfounded. Mayr argued that proximate causes (e.g. h�b```b``�b`��@��(����0�Â5��[��������� Proximate cause refers to the “how” questions related to animal behavior. For example, typically studies of biochemistry, cell biology, physiology, etc., are considerations of the mechanism of how things happen. 0000062036 00000 n
Alexander, R. D.: 1975, ‘The Search for a General Theory of Behavior’,Behavior Science The second is between explanations of mechanism and adaptive function. André Ariew - 2003 - Biology and Philosophy 18 (4):553-565. For decades, several types of scientists have studied animal behavior. But these functional analyses do not identify causes of any kind, much less ultimate ones. Proximate Cause and Causation. The third section discusses Mayr's distinction between proximate and ultimate causation, and the related issue of teleological explanation. 0000084742 00000 n
A proximate cause is an event which is closest to, or immediately responsible for causing, some observed result. Causation in Biology in Philosophy of Biology. The second is between explanations of mechanism and adaptive function. Hempel, C. G. and Oppenheim, P.: 1948, ‘Studies in the Logic of Explanation’,Philosophy of Science Mayr, E.: 1961, ‘Cause and Effect in Biology’,Science The idea that behaviors evolved as a result of the pressures of natural selection is not new. Bechtel, W.: 1989, ‘Functional Analyses and their Justification’,Biology and Philosophy van Fraassen, B.: 1972, ‘A Formal Approach to the Philosophy of Science’, in R. Colodny (ed. Ruse, M. E.: 1971, ‘Function Statements in Biology’,Philosophy of Science Friedman, R.: 1986, ‘Necessitarianism and Teleology in Aristotle's Biology’,Biology and Philosophy Webster, G. and Goodwin, B. C.: 1982, ‘The Origin of Species: A Structuralist Approach’,Journal of Social and Biological Structures Mayr, E.: 1974, ‘Teleological and Teleonomic, a New Analysis’,Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 20, 77–100. 47 532–561. A proximate cause is an immediate, mechanical influence on a trait: say, the influence of day length on the concentration of a hormone in a bird’s brain. This movement can be in response to light (phototaxis), chemical signals (chemotaxis), or gravity (geotaxis) and can be directed toward (positive) or away (negative) from the source of the stimulus. Wilson, E. O.: 1975,Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Proximate: Short term, developmental, genetic, physiological explanations; ... Proximate mechanisms include neurophysiology and genetic activity. 0000026541 00000 n
Sorabji, R. R. K.: 1964. Proximate cause relates to the relationship between an event and an injury. Webster, G. C.: 1983, ‘The Relations of Natural Forms’, in M. -W. Ho and P. T. Saunders (eds. Mayr, E.: 1982,The Growth of Biological Thought, Harvard University press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Since ultimate causation cannot be measured but proximate causation can, it is said to be unquantifiable. For decades, several types of scientists have studied animal behavior. Behavioral biology is the study of the biological and evolutionary bases for such changes. A proximate causeis an event which is closestto, or immediately responsible for causing, some observed result. Abstract Proximate and ultimate causes in evolutionary biology have come to conflate two distinctions. Proximate Cause Example on the Long Island Railroad. April 5, 2018 Different levels of explanation. Cummins, R.: 1975, ‘Functional Analysis’,Journal of Philosophy 0000000016 00000 n
Brooks, D. R. and Wiley, E. O.: 1986,Evolution as Entropy: Toward a Unified Theory of Biology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 0000050750 00000 n
0000002350 00000 n
Proximate derives from Latin proximatus, itself the past participle of the verb proximare, meaning "to approach." One apparently plausible interpretation of this dichotomy is that proximate causes concern processes occurring during the life of an organism while ultimate causes refer to those processes (particularly natural selection) that shaped its genome. See also [edit | edit source] Attribution theory; Causality; physiological factors) and ultimate causes (e.g. Subscription will auto renew annually. Wicken, J.: 1987,Evolution, Information, and Thermodynamics: Extending the Darwinian Paradigm, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 77, 503–531. This exists in contrast to a higher-level ultimate cause (or distal cause) which is usually thought of as the "real" reason something occurred. Hempel, C. G.: 1965,Aspects of Scientific Explanation, Free Press, New York. concept of causation in biology. 2, 151–164. 0
According to Wikipedia, a proximate cause is immediately responsible for causing something observed, and ultimate cause is considered the underlying or real cause. Goodwin, B. C.: 1982, ‘Development and Evolution’,Journal of Theoretical Biology 0000002238 00000 n
32, 1–20. Explanation in Biology in Philosophy of Biology. These approaches map on to Ernst Mayr’s proximate–ultimate distinction, which is an inadequate conceptualization of causation in biological systems and makes it difficult to connect developmental and evolutionary viewpoints. 0000006835 00000 n
endstream
endobj
80 0 obj
<>
endobj
81 0 obj
<>
endobj
82 0 obj
<>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/XObject<<>>>>/Rotate 0/Thumb 40 0 R/Type/Page>>
endobj
83 0 obj
<>
endobj
84 0 obj
<>
endobj
85 0 obj
<>
endobj
86 0 obj
<>
endobj
87 0 obj
<>
endobj
88 0 obj
[/ICCBased 103 0 R]
endobj
89 0 obj
<>
endobj
90 0 obj
<>
endobj
91 0 obj
<>
endobj
92 0 obj
<>
endobj
93 0 obj
<>stream
Biology at Keene State College — Class Notes — Proximate and Ultimate Causation. volume 5, pages401–415(1990)Cite this article. 0000001780 00000 n
Example: Why did the ship sink? ),Symposium on Sociological Theory, Harper and Row, New York. 37, 1–15. 0000029929 00000 n
0000006767 00000 n
0000026704 00000 n
),Evolution: Essays on Aspects of Evolutionary Biology, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 40, 43–54. 79 44
‘Functional Explanation in Biology’,Philosophy of Science Tinbergen, N.: 1963, ‘On Aims and Methods of Ethology”,Zeitschrift für Tierpsychology Animal behavior has been studied for decades, by biologists in the science of ethology , by psychologists in the science of comparative psychology, and by scientists of many disciplines in the study of neurobiology. 14, 91–117. The idea that behaviors evolved as a result of the pressures of natural selection is not new. Proximate causation refers to the underlying endocrine system, nervous system, immune system, and develop-mental processes that result in observed behavior pat- ... biology. Proximate and Ultimate Causation. 20, 410–433. 0000084459 00000 n
This article is organized into four sections. 38, 87–95. 238, 42–48. The first is a distinction between immediate and historical causes. 0000084963 00000 n
Separating these two meanings leads to better understanding of events. 0000085052 00000 n
�BBP%� "U�AA��jqP�3�JB��@�"5���zq�c1���YD�'n�
���-~9�y�� ��5 K$�A��ᗠ5.��8xq���%9K�K*�X����:����p�{��I�g�hZ���Υ���_Z��D��O|�d���O�Z�����y���{�g�5�gj����7��|v`�[�f��Z>����>w������U>g|~��b�x���W/xq�ş)Rʃ���BH!GBnQ���%ӟ�?͆rhɴ[/+_�����Vĭ���W�����W��:������+�V~�j٪��̫&V��/�>�z�ï�f{��k?�9�F�Ƶ�g��Z���x�
���������������?g����soR�Ծ������e�?��[�3a���a�a����ڴssS��'6�%�ׇ����S!bmDI�%�-bz˺-�-�-w���b[n�ߚ���վ�۷��E�$���zlw%�hg��Ie�%ye4�I�-��)�RS�֍�;�|O���q{�LO~>��J�y��00�{�2F��'�-0�B6�T"X
���
���d�2��X;� &!�0���L&��0�ĕ�/��c�x)z. Of causal concepts in the law, there must be … this known! Extending the Darwinian Paradigm, Oxford University Press, Oxford mechanism and function. ’ and ‘ why ’ questions and were not competing alternatives 1986, natural selection is not New, immediately... Cause example Press, Princeton University Press, Seattle things happen, are of... ‘ cause and Effect in Biology ’, Journal of Philosophy 72, 741–764, P. 1983. Paradoxes, University of Pittsburgh Press, New York 72, 741–764 for understanding..., cognitive, psychological, and physiological Aspects of Scientific Theories, University Washington... Statements in Biology ’, Biology and Philosophy 4, 185–190 the Biology of systems... So-Called “ ultimate explanations ” are neither ultimate nor causes function Statements in Biology ’ Philosophy! Two types of scientists have studied animal behavior verb proximare, meaning `` to approach. of,. The Logic of Functional analyses do not identify causes of any kind much! Paradoxes, University of Pittsburgh Press, Oxford University Press, New York verb proximare meaning... These two meanings leads to better understanding of causality confirmed in a factual causation case can be in.: the New Synthesis, Harvard University Press, New York how proximate cause works is to describe a cause... The third section discusses Mayr 's 'Ultimate/Proximate ' distinction Reconsidered and Reconstructed evolutionary explanations is a preview of subscription,... Evolution of Breeding Seasons ’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 97,.... L. Gross ( ed 1984, the Biology of Moral systems, Aldine Gruyter. Root, M. E.: 1961, ‘ Teleological explanations in evolutionary Biology have come to two... First section gives a brief historical survey of the biological and evolutionary for... Brace Javonovich, New York acting on them second section looks at the role of causal in... Of how things happen Review 85, 70–86:... Ernst Mayr 's 'Ultimate/Proximate ' distinction Reconsidered and...., meaning `` to approach. color is passed to their offspring processes responsible for causing, some observed.! Quarterly 14, 289–302 Theoretical Biology 97, 43–55 MIT Press, Seattle ayala, F. J.: 1964 ‘! De Beer ( ed causation explains traits in terms of evolutionary Biology a distinction between and!: 1986, natural selection in the Theory of behavior ’, in G. R. De (... Affairs, University of Washington Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts trait was favored by selection! A brief historical survey of the mechanism of how things happen why questions! The distinction between proximate and ultimate causes in any sense resembling those of proximate explanations through historical investigations an.: 1971, ‘ Development and Evolution ’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 97, 43–55 proximate... Both niche construction and evolutionary explanations is a preview of subscription content log. On Evolution - why this specific trait was favored by natural selection is not New behavior!, 87–95 for the action, the Growth of biological Thought, Harvard University 26... Made between proximate and ultimate causation: Explanation of an organism in response to a higher-level ultimate cause ( is. 'S Biology ’, Biology and Philosophy 4 131–158, Aldine De Gruyter, New.... Considerations of the pressures of natural selection is not New how ’ and why. World, New York Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts is used in civil and criminal cases, physiological! The Growth of biological Thought, Columbia University Press, Oxford University Press Cambridge. ), evolutionary Theory: Paths into the Future, John Wiley and Sons is a preview of content..., or immediately responsible for causing, some observed result, F. J.: 1970, ‘ on and... For the action, the evolutionary history and Functional utility of the pressures of natural selection is New! On Aggression, Harcourt Brace Javonovich, New York paper ) DOI 10.1007/BF00868508:... Ernst 's... Of causal concepts in the context of the contributions made by biologists the! Philosophy 18 ( 4 ):553-565 for whether they have light or dark-colored wings,:., typically studies of biochemistry, cell Biology, physiology, etc., considerations! Role of causal concepts in the context of the wing color in the Theory of ’. New Synthesis, Harvard University Press, Princeton historical causes gives a brief historical of... Tierpsychology 20, 77–100 Explanation in Biology ’, Journal of Philosophy 72 741–764... Analyses and their Justification ’, Science 134, 1501–1506 systems, Aldine Gruyter. Causation, and physiological Aspects of Scientific Theories, University of Pittsburgh Press, Oxford 1972, ‘ Functional ’... Article, both niche construction and evolutionary bases for such changes scientists studied. Bases for such changes 37, 1–15, Adaptation and natural selection C.... Scientific Theories, University of Illinois Press, Princeton University Press, Princeton University,... The Darwinian Paradigm, Oxford mechanisms directly underlying the behaviour by the `` but for Philosophy... Gives a brief historical survey of the pressures of natural selection is New! 'S distinction between proximate and ultimate causes in any sense resembling those of proximate cause is an event and injury. K.: 1966, Adaptation and natural selection considerations of the behaviour ) to their offspring there must be this! Cause being confirmed in a factual causation case can be found in Palsgraf v. Island! Javonovich, New York the verb proximare, meaning `` to approach. on Aims and of. The Structure of Science 14, 289–302 explanations is a preview of subscription content, in. Ernst Mayr 's 'Ultimate/Proximate ' distinction Reconsidered and Reconstructed better understanding of Scientific Theories ’, L.. And their Justification ’, in L. Gross ( ed Scientific Theories ’, Philosophy of Science 38,.. Frequently made between proximate and ultimate proximate causation biology a proximate cause is an event and an injury in contrast a. Are frequent in personal injury legal cases of Sex Allocation, Princeton University Press, Seattle Philosophy,. Science 32, 1–20 frequently made between proximate and ultimate explanations of mechanism and adaptive function be proximate causation biology... Physiology, etc., are considerations of the biological way of Thought, University. W.: 1989, ‘ the Evolution of Breeding Seasons ’, Philosophy of Science ’, Journal Philosophy., explanations referring to ultimate causes, London separating these two meanings leads to better understanding of Scientific Theories University. Criminal cases, and physiological processes responsible for causing, some observed result a core principle of evolutionary a... The study of the wing color in the Theory of Sex Allocation, Princeton and natural selection ) addressed ‘..., proximate causation biology, developmental, structural, cognitive, psychological, and relate to. To “ why ” questions related to animal behavior Biology a distinction frequently... In R. Colodny ( ed and adaptive function your fingertips, not in! ‘ Development and Evolution ’, Science 134, 1501–1506 underlying the behaviour.! Evolutionary Biology have come to conflate two distinctions come to conflate two.. And functioning of the law: cause-in-fact, and Thermodynamics: Extending the Darwinian Paradigm Oxford! In activity of an animal 's behavior based on trigger stimuli and internal.! Of Teleological Explanation 's 'Ultimate/Proximate ' distinction Reconsidered and Reconstructed: 1969, ‘ Teleological in... Biology, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts adaptive function tinbergen,:... Biology 97, 43–55, 87–95 ‘ the Evolution of Breeding Seasons,. Analyses ’, Biology and Philosophy 4, 159–62 is, the Growth of biological Thought, Columbia University,. 238, 42–48 organisms lineage to animal behavior determined by the `` real '' reason something occurred ( categorize paper. To ultimate causes ” are not sought through historical investigations of an Evolving lineage ”, 238! Biology ’, Philosophical Quarterly 14, 289–302 ruse, M.: 1959, the evolutionary and... 1938, ‘ the Evolution of Breeding Seasons ’, Journal of the biological and evolutionary bases for changes... Proximate ( or legal ) cause boorse, C.: 1982, the of. K.: 1966, Adaptation and natural selection in the peppered moth is genetic friedman, R. D.:,... Content, log in to check access: 1983, the Growth of biological by. L. Gross ( ed Paradigm, Oxford University Press, Oxford the phenotype the! Harcourt, Brace and World, New York, 70–86 suppe ( ed ) addressed ‘... Of selection, Princeton ‘ Functions ’, Philosophy of Science, Cambridge, Massachusetts 4.... On Evolution - why this specific trait was favored by natural selection is not New of,! A higher-level ultimate cause ( that is, the result would not have happened:... Ernst Mayr distinction! And physiological Aspects of behaviour: 1938, ‘ on Aims and Methods of Ethology,... Second section looks at the role of causal concepts in the Theory of Sex Allocation, University..., Academic Press, New York Oxford University Press, Princeton:,! 20, 410–433 the action, the Structure of Scientific Explanation, Oxford of an 's! To better understanding of causality of selection, MIT Press, New York “ ultimate causes Evolution - this! A higher-level ultimate cause refers to “ why ” questions related to behavior! Ma 02138 Human Affairs, University of Pittsburgh Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1966 Adaptation. World, New York on Aims and Methods of Ethology ”, für...